The Paradoxical “Country” of Africa, the Cradle of Civilization

The Paradoxical “Country” of Africa, the Cradle of Civilization

Around the first or second grade, we learn that there are seven continents:  North America, South America, Asia, Europe, Antarctica, and Australia.   Oh yes, and then there is Africa!  Yes, Africa is a continent, and it is not a country, contrary to popular belief.  This is particularly true in Western culture because individuals may possess little knowledge about the continent due to limited exposure in our education systems, a simple lack of interest, and based how Africa is portrayed in the media.  Since Africa is often referred to in the media and our education systems as a conglomerate of generalities, that is the perception that many us base our assumptions on.   The list below is in no particular order of importance, and much more information can be added, but it corrects some of these assumptions:

• Africa is not a country; it is a continent.  Africa has 54 sovereign countries, 9 territories, and 2 de-facto independent states; those who recognize the de-facto states consider Africa as having 56 countries.
• Africa is not one large jungle; only about 10% of African topography is tropical, while other major environmental landscapes include deserts and savannas.
• Africa is sparsely populated.  As of 2013, Africa had an estimated population of over 1 billion people; it is the second largest and second most populated continent.
• There are third world countries in Africa, but there is no such thing as a third world continent.  There are many thriving countries and successful people from Africa.
• Africa is not a barren land; there are number of countries with numerous amounts of natural resources that can be used to build their economies. 
• Everyone in Africa does not have HIV/AIDS; there are countries in Africa with a disproportionately high HIV/AIDS rates due to health disparities that are associated with high risk behaviors, socio-economic status, and limited access to care. While the numbers pertaining to the continent of Africa are very high, there are many people in the United States that suffer from a variety of illnesses due to these same factors.  
• In 2014, Africa experienced its largest Ebola outbreak in recent history, but it was not the entire continent of Africa.  The Ebola epidemic primarily took place in the West African region.
• The African slave trade was not focused on the entire continent of Africa, it primarily took place in the West African region.
• The Apartheid and Nelson Mandela’s campaign for freedom did not take place across the entire continent; it was based in South Africa, where racial segregation was embedded into governmental and societal policies.

Africa is often called the “Lost Continent,” but it is not lost, it is simply not acknowledged for its many contributions to history.  Africa is the cradle of human civilization; it is proven to be where life began based on DNA testing and mapping along with archaeological findings.  Some historical and religious texts consider human existence as beginning only about 6,000 years ago, but archaeological findings in Africa such as those of “Lucy” in the 1970s demonstrate that life, culture, and societies have existed for much longer than this.  The “Lucy” skeleton, for example, was estimated to be over 3.2 million years old.  Also, based on evolutionary theory, modern humans or homo-sapiens begin to appear around 40,000 years ago on the continent. 

Even before being recognized as a continent, Africa already had a rich history that was based on geographical and cultural affiliations. There were various kingdoms throughout Africa that have played significant roles in history such as Egypt, Kush, Ethiopia, Ghana, and Mali.  Many individuals are familiar with Egyptian hieroglyphs and papyrus, for example, but Egypt was also very technologically, scientifically, astronomically, and mathematically advanced.  There are many historians and researchers today that are still trying to figure out how the pyramids were built!  Whether one is referring to the various kingdoms in historical Africa or the smaller tribal units, African culture has played a major role on modern society to include customs, traditions, and religious beliefs and practices.  The historical significance of the continent cannot be summed up in one or two paragraphs.   As Dr. Henry Louis Gates stated:  Let’s face it- think of Africa, and the first images that come to mind are war, poverty, famines, and flies.  How many of us really know anything at all about the truly great ancient African civilizations, which in their day, were just as splendid as any on the face of the earth?”

Courses currently reviewing:  Cultural Literacy for Religion, The World's Great Religions:  Christianity, The African Diaspora, and Souls Beliefs.

Dr. Kristy Taylor, DHsc, PhD candidate, University of Sedona

A Hinduistic-Karmatic Approach to the Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Life Theory

 A Hinduistic-Karmatic Approach to the Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Life Theory

Hinduism is considered the world’s oldest major religion; the religion dates back several thousand years, but it does not have a definite starting point.  Hinduism recognizes four key stages to life based on the goals of humanity; caste systems also play an important role within the practice of the religion.  The goals of humanity include:

• Dharma:  implies duty or obligation to engage in right conduct, law, and morality

• Aretha: seeks to gain wealth and power

• Kama:  is experiencing the pleasures of life such as music, poetry, art, dance, food, and sex

• Moksha:  involves seeking liberation from life’s cycle of birth, death, and rebirth

The ultimate goal of Hinduism is to achieve the Moksha level of liberation by ending the soul’s cycle of reincarnation.  This is achieved by gaining virtue through the internal recognition of vanity, understanding of earthly suffering, and abandoning earthly desires for spiritual pursuits in order to achieve Nirvana.  The hierarchies within the caste system are connected to ideas of purity; therefore individuals at the lowest level of the system are often tasked to do the dirtiest jobs.  Justification for the caste system is based on the concept of karma.  Karma is the ideology that destiny is determined by a means of cause and effect.  A person’s actions in this current state or life determines their future existence; therefore whatever you do comes back to you.  While caste systems are important; the second most important aspect of the religion are the elements associated with the stage of life that one is in.  There are four stages of life according to Hinduism:

• Student:  an individual is to learn all that they can.

• Householder:  individuals are expected to get married, have children, have a career, and earn money

• Forest Dweller/Hermit (Retirement):  occurs when individuals are done raising children and are ready to retire; most individuals will remain in this stage

• Renunciate:   stage involves individuals who are committed to living the remainder of their life as celibate-beggars in spiritual pursuit; the ultimate is to prevent the process of reincarnation by reaching the highest level of actualization (Nirvana), thereby achieving liberation.

        Hinduism recognizes that an individual will have different goals based on their respective stage.  Similar to the concepts found in the Hinduistic practices of karmatic life experiences that involve reincarnative processes as a means of becoming self-actualized or liberated is the Stages of Psychosocial Development model developed by Dr. Erik Erikson in 1959.  According to theory, there are eight stages of development within the human life cycle.  Each stage is designed to help a person to gain new insight and mastery of life’s challenge by experiencing phases of psychosocial crisis; all stages are dependent upon the successful completion of the previous one.  Erikson’s model involves reaching liberation through virtuous, character building experiences.  As individuals progress through each stage, they must learn to deal with the bio-cultural elements of life in order to gain the associated virtue.  Although mastery of a stage is not required within one cycle, individuals who fail to demonstrate mastery may encounter similar karmatic challenges within the next stage.  Erikson’s model consists of the following stages based on approximate age:

Approximate Age:  Infant, 0-18 months

• Psychosocial Crisis Experienced: Basic Trust vs. Mistrust

• Virtue Learned Upon Successful Completion:  Hope

• Summary of Stage:  Bonds of love or mistrust are formed

Approximate Age:  Toddler, 18 months-3 years

• Psychosocial Crisis Experienced: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

• Virtue Learned Upon Successful Completion:  Will

• Summary of Stage:  Physical skills and control are developed; concept of success, failure, doubt, and shame develop

Approximate Age:  Preschool, 3-5 years

• Psychosocial Crisis Experienced: Initiative vs. Guilt

• Virtue Learned Upon Successful Completion: Purpose

• Summary of Stage:  Development of assertiveness and initiative may result in feelings of guilt if done in excess

Approximate Age:  School Age, 6-12 years

• Psychosocial Crisis Experienced: Industry vs. Inferiority 

• Virtue Learned Upon Successful Completion:  Competence

• Summary of Stage:  Feelings of inferiority and incompetence may arise as one learn to adapts to life’s demands

Approximate Age:   Adolescent, 12-18 years

• Psychosocial Crisis Experienced:  Identity vs. Role Confusion

• Virtue Learned Upon Successful Completion:  Fidelity

• Summary of Stage:  Development of personal identity to include gender, religious, and political

Approximate Age:  Young Adult, Age:  19-39 years

• Psychosocial Crisis Experienced:  Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Virtue Learned Upon Successful Completion:   Love

• Summary of Stage:  Intimate relationships are sought and developed; may experience rejection and isolation

Approximate Age:  Middle Adulthood, Age:  40-64 years

• Psychosocial Crisis Experienced: Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Virtue Learned Upon Successful Completion:  Care

• Summary of Stage:  Involves seeking ways to support the next generation

Approximate Age:  Maturity, Age:  65-Death

• Psychosocial Crisis Experienced: Ego Integrity vs. Despair

• Virtue Learned Upon Successful Completion:  Wisdom

• Summary of Stage:  Characterized by self-reflection and acceptance; may experience a sense of fulfillment

While the stages of development Hinduism apply to reaching liberation as a means of ending the cycle of life, i.e. the matured soul, Erikson’s approach deals with life’s physical experiences with the ultimate goal of feeling self-fulfilled as one reaches the age of maturity and the end of life.  Based on Erikson's theory and the ideologies of Hinduism, one could pose the following questions as a means of self-reflection:  

• Will you achieve liberation or maturity by the end of your life based on your current path?
• If not, what are some areas in your life that need improvement?
• What strategies will you use to reach liberational-maturity in order to end karmatic life cycles?
• What lessons have you learned from your previous life experiences that can be used in the future?

Courses currently reviewing:  Cultural Literacy for Religion, The World's Great Religions:  Christianity, The African Diaspora, and Souls Beliefs.

Dr. Kristy Taylor, DHsc, PhD candidate, University of Sedona

Cultural Relativism and Religion: Are We Born This Way?

                      Cultural Relativism and Religion:   Are We Born This Way?

Religion is more than simply a belief in a god or gods, a group of individuals who share a common belief, or a way of seeking and finding life’s meaning.  While religion does seek to provide an explanation of universal phenomenon and life’s occurrences, not all religions attribute these ideas to a god concept.  What then, is a substantive explanation for religion? And what role does cultural relativism play in religious indoctrination?

The family resemblance model is a philosophical ideology made popular by German philosopher, Ludwig Wittgenstein.   The family resemblance model argues that things that have been traditionally thought to be connected by one singular element may instead be connected based on a series of imbricate commonalities.  Based on the family resemblance model, religions tend to share some or all of the following traits:

·        Belief in a god, gods, or the supernatural

·        Explanations of suffering and evil

·        Rituals and ceremonies that include music or dance

·        Means of deliverance or salvation

·        An authoritative, sacred text and or scriptures

·        Specialists who interpret the sacred text

·        Explanations for the nature of reality

Many religious beliefs are based on tradition and cultural relativism.  Cultural relativism involves the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from an inter-cultural perspective.  The study of African American History, for example, is unique from the study of the African Diaspora although both have commonalities.  Although many African Americans can trace their ancestry to West Africa, African Americans have carved out their own unique history within the context of American culture and society.  Traditionally, most African Americans are Christian based on the religious customs that have been passed down to them from previous generations.   While not all religions share the same beliefs, many do share the same traits.  Buddhism, for example, does not believe in a higher power, but it does have a sacred text called the Sutras and priests.  Individuals who practice Hinduism believe in karma and reincarnation; how we behave in this life has an impact on our next life’s cycle.

Due to cultural relativism and tradition, many of us were born into the religions that we practice; therefore we are indoctrinated with the religious traditions of our cultures.  Those religions traditions often include various rites of passage ceremonies such as birth dedications, coming of age ceremonies, and ceremonies for death.   Cultural relativism helps to shape our perspectives in terms of acceptable and unacceptable cultural norms, but some ideas that are acceptable within one culture may not be accepted in another.  Examples of some cultural but not universally accepted practices are polygamy, some rites of passage ceremonies, genital mutilation, and issues related to women’s rights. 

Because of the effects of cultural relativism, tradition, and indoctrination, one might pose the following types of questions: 

§  Are we all born atheist? An atheist is someone who lacks belief in the existence of a god or gods.   Does a lack of knowledge regarding the culturally relative view of god mean that atheism comes before indoctrination?

 

§  Agnostics are individuals who neither practice faith nor disbelief in a god; they simply are unsure.  Therefore, maybe we are born agnostic? 

§  A culturally relative answer to these questions is no, since atheism and agnosticism are considered choices. Unlike atheism and agnosticism, religion seeks to provide an explanation for supernatural existence.  But from an objective standpoint, should religion be considered a choice as well? 

Cultural relativism is not only about inter-cultural perspectives, but it also requires that we are objective in how we view others as we seek to understand them.  Everyone’s perspective is shaped by their cultural and life experiences; the more life experiences that we have beyond our own culture, the broader our view of the world becomes.  It does not mean that we will change our own beliefs, but we may become more open to the ideas of others.

Additional commentary:  I have learned a lot the past few days.  It is hard to write an article and pose these types of questions without experiencing the feelings associated with cultural relativism.  I strongly believe that we are born with a concept of the divine already in us, but we are too naïve to recognize it as children.  At the same time, my beliefs may not be someone else’s beliefs, therefore, it is important to remain objective on certain issues, particularly as I seek to learn more about the perspectives of others. 

I distinguish religion from spirituality, which is something I will discuss in another article.  My goal is to provide an objective view in the articles since they will become part of an online database, and I will add my commentary at the bottom of my blog posts.  In the first lecture for Cultural Literacy for Religion, Dr. Berkson pointed out that knowledge of how others practice religion provides us with a better understanding of various cultures, politics, and the world.  The idea of cultural relativism was discussed in the lectures from the African Diaspora, although he was not focusing particularly on religion in the first few lectures.  I thought it would be interesting to examine this concept as it relates to religion due to the first video lecture that I watched from the Souls Beliefs course.  It is an open enrollment course on Coursera, and I encourage you to take it if this is something of interest. 

Courses currently reviewing:  Cultural Literacy for Religion, The African Diaspora, and Souls Beliefs.

Dr. Kristy Taylor, DHsc, PhD candidate, University of Sedona

Course Review: God and Mankind: Comparative Religions

God and Mankind:  Comparative Religions

I have already completed my first course!

The course consisted of 8 lectures that are approximately 43 minute each.  The course description is below:

Photo Copyright:  The Great Courses

God and Mankind:  Comparative Religions

"How do the major religions answer unanswerable questions? What can we gain from their answers? Why are we here? What is my purpose? Where do we go when we die? Will I be forgiven? Will we ever discover the source of the mystery? Each of these questions raises countless more."

"God and Mankind: Comparative Religions by Professor Robert Oden is an ideal starting point for gaining some progress in considering these questions. And if you've been thinking about them for a while, as so many do, you will likely discover he has many fresh insights to offer you.  Professor Oden, who holds degrees in Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, and Theology, has taught at Harvard University and Dartmouth College over a long and exceptionally distinguished career as both teacher and college president."

More about Dr. Rorbert Oden:  http://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/god-and-mankind-comparative-religions.html

8 Lectures:  Topics of Discussion

·         Why Nothing Is as Intriguing as the Study of Religion

·         Orienting Humanity—Religions as Spiritual Compasses

·         Religious Heroes 1—Gilgamesh and the Dawn of History

·         Religious Heroes 2—Moses and Jesus

·         Pondering Divine Justice—Do We Suffer for Naught?

·         Defending Divine Justice—Religious Accounts of Suffering

·         Religious Rituals and Communities 

·         Bringing It All Back Home

Link to course:  http://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/god-and-mankind-comparative-religions.html

General Thoughts: 

As a starting point, I thought that the lectures were pretty interesting.  I was previously aware of the similarities between the story of Noah and the Arc and the Flood of Gilgamesh, but I was not aware of aware of the complete story of Gilgamesh as a literary figure.  I will be further reviewing perspectives on the Epic of Gilgamesh and stories in the Bible.   Not only do I plan to do more research on Gilgamesh, but I would also like to re-listen to the lecture on Moses and Jesus.  Dr. Oden also discussed concepts of Buddhism, Hinduism, as well as Islam.  Since these concepts are new to me, I will completing the Cultural Literacy for Religion:  Everything the Well Educated Person Should Know course next. 

One of the reasons that I plan to re-listen to the lecture on Moses and Jesus is because of the last lecture.  The lecture entitled:  “Bringing It All Back Home,” was the most interesting to me, since I already teach American History. The concepts of Puritans comparing themselves to the Israelite's is of particular interest.  It provides insight into the mindset of our colonial predecessors.  I plan to write my first research article on this topic; it is tentatively titled:  Puritan Exodus:  Journey to the Promise Land.

Dr. Kristy K. Taylor, DHsc, PhD Candidate, University of Sedona